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Goals of
the project
Why are women and minorities underrepresented
in the IT labor force? We will address this issue in
terms of three sub-questions: (a) what are the psychological
mediators of both gender and ethnic group differences
in entry into and persistence in the IT labor force?
(b) What are the family and school forces that underlie
the gender and ethnic group differences in these psychological
mediators? (c) How do experiences in tertiary educational
settings and in IT work settings influence gender and
ethnic group differences in entry into and persistence
in the IT labor force? We propose three data analytic
projects designed to answer these questions. In 1983,
Eccles et al. outlined a theoretical framework based
on expectancies, values, and achievement behaviors to
study questions such as these. This framework has two
components: a psychological component and a socialization
component. For 17 years, we have used this framework
to study educational and occupational choices using
longitudinal survey designs that include multiple indicators
from children, adolescents, young adults, parents, teachers,
and school records. We have 3 large longitudinal data
sets that we will use to assess the utility of the Eccles
et al. frameworks for understanding the under-representation
of females and minorities in occupational fields related
to informational technology. We will use these data
sets to test the following specific sets of predictions:
- To test the utility of the psychological
components of Eccles et al. theoretical framework
for understanding the psychological mediators of gender
and ethnic group differences in activity and task
choices (such as computer use and enrollment in IT
courses or programs) related to entry into information
technology jobs.
- To test the utility of the socialization
(experiential) components of the Eccles et al. framework
for understanding the social origins gender and ethnic
group differences in the psychological mediators identified
under #1.
To meet these goals, we are collecting
the necessary supplementary IT-related data and are
analyzing three data sets of longitudinal data: Michigan
Study of Adult Life Transitions (MSALT), Childhood and
Beyond (CAB), Maryland Adolescent Development In Context Study (MADICS). Each of
these data sets contain information from childhood through
early adulthood.
Childhood and
Beyond (CAB): Data collection began in 1987 with
three cohorts (kindergarteners, and 1st and 2nd graders)
of white middle class children, their parents, and their
teachers. We have gathered 9 waves of data on these
cohorts (4 during the elementary and beginning middle
school, 3 during high school and 1 two years post high
school graduation). We are seeking funding from NICHD
to continue to follow this sample of young people through
college and both post high school and post college employment.
We have surveys, teacher assessments, and school record
data and other publicly available information on the
schools and communities across most waves on approximately
850 children; we have surveys from about 65% of their
parents. The project focuses on 3 basic issues: (1)
the ontogeny of competence beliefs, task value, and
task importance for math, language arts, physical science,
and computers; (2) the relation of these self and task
beliefs to adolescents' academic and non-academic activity
choices, performance in these activities, and long term
educational and occupational planning; and (3) the relation
of both current and previous experiences in the home
and school to the ontogeny of these self and task beliefs,
activity preferences and competencies. We gathered extensive
information about all of the experiences the children
had related to computers both at home and in school
at each wave. This information will allow us to model
the role of experiences in the home and at school on
the development of gender differences in children's
and adolescents' interest in computers and information
technology.
Michigan Study
of Adult Life Transitions (MSALT) : Data collection
for this study began in 1983 with 1700 fifth and sixth
graders (and their parents and teachers) recruited from
10 different school districts in Southeastern Michigan.
This sample represents white working and middle class
families. We have collected 8 waves of data from these
adolescents (4 waves in grades 6 and 7, two waves in
10th and 12th grade, one wave at age 20 and one wave
at age 24-26 when the sample size is around 1400). We
are now collecting a 9th wave of data at age 27-29.
The study was initially designed to evaluate the impact
of the junior high school math class environments and
family environment on early adolescents' achievement-related
self-concepts, interests, and motivation for math, physical
science and other school subjects. We measured ability
self-concepts and anxieties for math and physical science
as well as many characteristics of math classroom environments.
Over time, the study expanded to include information
on educational and occupational planning, decisions,
and choices. Throughout, the project was guided by the
Eccles' theoretical framework. Thus, we have measures
on self perceptions of one's competencies, interests
in, and enjoyment of, various school subjects and extracurricular
activities (including those linked to information technology);
personal and vocational goals and values; gender-role
stereotypes; educational, occupational and family plans;
sources of information considered in making these plans;
perceptions of the available opportunities and options;
perceptions of the usefulness and intrinsic value of
various options and of the likelihood of obtaining each
option; and perceptions of the links between various
adult roles (e.g., family roles and work roles). We
have gathered information on the adolescents' perceptions
of occupational fields involving information technology
(e.g., their confidence and interest in their ability
to work in fields that use computers), as well as information
about what they think has driven them away from fields
related to math and physical science. In addition, we
have comprehensive information on youth's experiences
in school, collected from the youth, their teachers,
their principals, and school public records. These measures
include indicators of academic achievement and performance
on standardized tests; involvement in a variety of positive
activities including work and extracurricular teams
and clubs; exposure to different types of peers; and
the nature of their secondary schools. Finally, we have
extensive information about their experiences in various
jobs either related to or not related to IT. These data
will allow us to model comprehensively the psychological
mediators outlined in Figure 1 of gender differences
in entry into and persistence in the IT labor force.
Maryland Adolescent Development In Context Study (MADICS): This sample of approximately 1000
is comprised of African-American (61%) and European-American
(35%) adolescents and their families of comparable SES
distributions (making it possible to look independently
at the impact of family income and ethnic group membership
on occupational choice). We have 5 waves of data (beginning
in 1991 when the students were in the 7th grade and
again after grade 7, after grade 8, during grade 11,
and one year post high school) gathered from the adolescents,
their caregivers (parents, guardians, or others), and
their school records. We have just completed gathering
a sixth wave of data (at three years post high school)
specifically focused on college experiences with a major
focus on the students' perceptions of factors likely
to either enhance or undermine their interest in information
technology, as well as other college majors and occupations.
Information was collected from the adolescents, their
parents, and their schools on: (1) psychological adjustment
and mental health; (2) social, musical, athletic, and
academic (math and other subjects) competencies and
performance; (3) self perceptions, sense of efficacy,
and identity formation, (including both personal and
social identities linked to: ethnicity, gender and religion);
(4) educational and occupational goals and expectations;
(5) expectations regarding discrimination and other
barriers to achieving one's goals, as well as beliefs
regarding one's ability to overcome these barriers;
(6) involvement in leisure activities related to computer
use, as well as other skill domains like athletics and
instrumental music; and (7) complete educational [including
courses taken and college major] and employment histories.
We have added a series of items directly linked to information
technology to wave 5 and our current wave. These indicators
include stereotypes about the types of individuals who
go into information technology, stereotypes about jobs
in information technology, confidence and interest in
various types of information technology jobs, experiences
in computer science, information technology, engineering
and math courses at college, and exposure to either
encouragement or discouragement about majoring in an
information technology subject or aspiring to a job
in information technology. This data set will allow
us to begin to test the applicability of the Eccles
et al. frameworks for understanding ethnic group differences
in entry into and persistence in the IT workforce.
Main activities
undertaken by the project
- Data collection of open-ended IT questions
in the MADICS study has been concluded.
- Initial coding of open-ended IT items
in MADICS grant has been completed.
- MSALT data collection of IT questions
to be put on the web prepared and awaiting sample
readiness.
- All data sets: occupation codes for
IT-related occupations are under review and being
defined for future analyses.
- Initial descriptive analysis for all
datasets have begun.
- Initial papers on achievement outcomes
and parental socialization are underway (see below).
- Papers have been submitted to 2 major
conference regarding IT grant.
Main results to date
Results from
CAB (submitted for presentation to the International
Society for the Study of Behavioral Development)
Parental Socialization of Children's Information
Technology Activities - Sandra Simpkins and Todd Bartko
Gender differences in children's engagement
in math, science, and computer activities are present
before Kindergarten. Because these differences emerge
before the school years, children must form these early
differences in information technology activities, at
least, in part from their parents and the home environment.
The goal of this study was to examine the associations
between different methods of parental socialization
of activities and children's engagement in early information-technology
activities. This study included children from second,
third, and fifth grade who participated in CAB. Mothers
and fathers separately reported their encouragement
of children's activities, parent-child engagement in
activities (henceforth labeled coactivity), parents'
engagement in activities (i.e., modeling), and children's
engagement in math, science, and computer activities.
Children also reported the amount of time they engaged
in those activities.
Results indicated that parents' encouragement,
coactivity, and modeling of math, science, and computer
activities were positively correlated with children's
activity engagement. Parental modeling typically evidenced
the weakest associations with children's activities.
Gender differences were examined through disparities
in the means and differences in the associations between
parental socialization and children's activities. The
means of parental socialization and the associations
between children's activities and parental socialization
were similar for both boys and girls. In conclusion,
both mothers' and fathers' socialization of children's
activities was positively associated with children's
engagement in those activities during the elementary
school period. Types of socialization in which parents
directly interact with their children, such as encouragement
and coactivity, were strongly related to children's
activities. The results concerning gender differences
suggest that boys and girls receive similar amounts
of socialization from parents and that parental socialization
has similar links with their activity engagement. Gender
differences in children's activities may result from
different aspects of parental socialization, such as
provision of toys and materials related to information-technology
activities. In addition, gender differences may emerge
from the differential influence of parental socialization
on children's confidence and self-esteem in these areas.
Results
from MSALT (Submited for presentation at Society
for Research on Adolescence)
Influences of Gender on Academic Achievement - Miriam
Linver and Pam Davis-Kean
Growth curve models for adolescents' school
math grades were estimated to address the following
questions: (a) What do the average math grade trajectories
look like, from 6th to 12th grade, by gender and by
school track? (b) What impact does interest in math
have over and above the effect of mothers' education
and gender, by school track? Overall, there is a declining
trajectory, but young women have higher grades than
young men (within each tracking group). For all four
groups, both the intercept and slope of the trajectory
are significantly different from zero, so we are justified
in estimating predictors of both parameters in our next
analyses. The honors/college track starts with higher
math grades, but these grades fall more dramatically
than the regular/basic group. Gender, mothers' education,
and interest in math are related to school grade trajectories.
For the honors/college tracking group, mothers' education
is related to both intercept and slope. Mothers with
higher education levels have adolescents with a higher
school grades intercept, but a slope that declines more
quickly. For the regular/basic group, mothers' education
level is unrelated to trajectories. For both tracking
groups, young women have significantly higher intercepts;
gender is unrelated to slope. Finally, higher math interest
is also positively related to a higher intercept, but
unrelated to slope for the honors/college group. For
the regular/basic group, math interest is related to
both intercept and slope: those with a higher math interest
have a higher intercept, and their slope declines more
slowly than those with a lower math interest. These
results suggest that for both boys and girls, math grades
fall over the course of junior high and high school.
Math interest explains some of this decline, over and
above students' gender and mothers' level of education.
Next steps planned
- Finish MSALT data collection on the
web about IT-related occupation choices.
- Design and complete 40 in-depth qualitative
interviews with MSALT participants (male and female)
who are currently in IT jobs (at age 30) or who earlier
expressed interest in IT jobs but are not currently
employed as such.
- Begin analyzing quantitative data to
explore issues regarding African American's college
majors and occupational aspirations.
- Begin major analysis across all three
studies to examine predictors of IT participation
in the workforce.
- Code and analyze MSALT qualitative
data.
Key open research
issues
- What is the impact of good math achievement
on course selection in college and eventual occupational
choice?
- Are those participants who are high
in achievement the only ones who are going into IT
jobs or are there other avenues?
- Do African Americans and women feel
more discrimination in the IT workplace?
- What kinds of stereotypes exist involving
IT jobs and are they more prevalent in certain genders
or race?
- How does parental and peer encouragement
and socialization impact on eventual IT career choices?
Questionaire
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